Abstract
Purpose
This study evaluates whether focusing on using specific muscles during bench press can selectively activate these muscles.
Methods
Altogether 18 resistance-trained men participated. Subjects were familiarized with the procedure and performed one-maximum repetition (1RM) test during the first session. In the second session, 3 different bench press conditions were performed with intensities of 20, 40, 50, 60 and 80 % of the pre-determined 1RM: regular bench press, and bench press focusing on selectively using the pectoralis major and triceps brachii, respectively. Surface electromyography (EMG) signals were recorded for the triceps brachii and pectoralis major muscles. Subsequently, peak EMG of the filtered signals were normalized to maximum maximorum EMG of each muscle.
Results
In both muscles, focusing on using the respective muscles increased muscle activity at relative loads between 20 and 60 %, but not at 80 % of 1RM. Overall, a threshold between 60 and 80 % rather than a linear decrease in selective activation with increasing intensity appeared to exist. The increased activity did not occur at the expense of decreased activity of the other muscle, e.g. when focusing on activating the triceps muscle the activity of the pectoralis muscle did not decrease. On the contrary, focusing on using the triceps muscle also increased pectoralis EMG at 50 and 60 % of 1RM.
Conclusion
Resistance-trained individuals can increase triceps brachii or pectarilis major muscle activity during the bench press when focusing on using the specific muscle at intensities up to 60 % of 1RM. A threshold between 60 and 80 % appeared to exist
The results of Calatayud et al. (...) indicate that focusing on the pectoralis major and triceps brachii muscles during bench press exercise selectively enhanced their activation, and thus suggest a training strategy. However, the authors did not discuss the well-established negative effects that focusing on specific muscle groups has on exercise performance. For proper perspective of the results and their practical utility, it is helpful to note the interplay between negative and positive effects of different focus conditions.
[...]
Compared to external focus, adopting an internal focus decreases the force participants are able to apply in both single- and multi-joint exercises (Wulf 2013 ). Internal focus also reduces the number of repetitions subjects are able to com- plete in dynamic exercises, such as the bench press. It also shortens the time subjects are able to sustain an isometric contraction, such as a wall-sit (Wulf 2013 ).
[...] in about 80 experiments significant advantages of external relative to internal foci (or, in some cases, distal relative to proximal foci) were found, sometimes in more than one measure of performance. Only a handful of those studies obtained null effects
[...]
Even though the attentional focus effect is now well established in the motor behavior literature, the translation of this research into practice is lagging behind. In interviews conducted by Porter, Wu, and Partridge (2010), 84.6% of track and field athletes who competed at national championships reported that their coaches gave instructions related to body and limb movements. As a consequence, the majority of athletes (69.2%) indicated that they focused internally when competing
For untrained individuals, greater training frequency leading to more volume could lead to greater strength gains. However, splitting the same weekly volume out over more sessions is unlikely to be beneficial. For trained individuals, splitting the same weekly volume out over more sessions might be beneficial, but evidence is very limited. Training with a higher frequency might be more effective for increasing strength because of improved inter-muscular co-ordination by virtue of a greater number of practice occasions.
For untrained individuals, altering volume-matched training frequency does not seem to have any effect on hypertrophy. For trained individuals, a higher volume-matched training frequency might to be superior to a lower volume-matched frequency for hypertrophy.
When comparing studies that investigated training muscle groups between 1 to 3 days per week on a volume-equated basis, the current body of evidence indicates that frequencies of training twice a week promote superior hypertrophic outcomes to once a week. It can therefore be inferred that the major muscle groups should be trained at least twice a week to maximize muscle growth; whether training a muscle group three times per week is superior to a twice-per-week protocol remains to be determined.
Results showed significantly greater increases in forearm flexor muscle thickness for TOTAL compared to SPLIT. No significant differences were noted in maximal strength measures. The findings suggest a potentially superior hypertrophic benefit to higher weekly resistance training frequencies.
certain lifting styles may inherently carry certain risks e.g. a wide grip on the bench press may increase the risk of shoulder injury and pectoralis major rupture [83], rounding of the back in the deadlift (which minimizes the moment arm of the load around the hip) the risk of spinal injuries [84], and buckling of the knees (valgus collapse– poorly synchronized or excessive tibial internal rotation and adduction relative to the knee flexion angle in a given stance) in the squat the risk of knee injuries [85].
Eighty two percent of strongman athletes reported injuries (1.6 ±1.5 training injuries/liftey, 0.4 ±0.7 competition injuries/liftey, 5.5 ±6.5 training injuries/1000 hr training).(...)
From the strongman athletes’ injury data, traditional exercises accounted for just over half of injuries (deadlift 18%, squat 16%, overhead press 9%, bench press 6% and other 6%) (see Table 4). Strongman events accounted for 46% of injuries (9% stone work, 8% yoke walk, 6% tire flip, 5% farmer’s walk, 4% axle work, 4% log lift and press, 2% circus dumbbell and 8% other).
Traditional exercises, (deadlift and squat) produce exceedingly large hip extensor torques (1, 7, 11) and compressive or shear lumbar forces (7, 13). Winwood and colleagues (32) reported that 100% of strongman competitors performed traditional exercises (i.e. squat and deadlift) as part of their training programs; therefore the large percentage of lower back injuries with these exercises can be expected.
Strength and conditioning professionals should not hesitate to use the deadlift exercise in their everyday practice, but before considering deadlift training for individuals with mechanical low back pain, our results suggest that pain intensity and the endurance of the hip and back extensors should be evaluated. For example, if low endurance of the hip and back extensors and high pain intensity are found in an individual with mechanical low back pain, then other interventions should be considered before initiating deadlift training. However, regardless of patients’ age, sex, body mass index, pain-related fear of movement, movement control,and activity, the deadlift exercise seems to be an effective intervention.(...)
pain not only inhibits optimal muscle recruitment patterns but can also influence motor learning(13). More specifically, it has been suggested that pain may disturb motor learning due to its interference in the quality of performing a task that is being practiced (e.g., the deadlift exercise) (12). It might have therefore taken more time for participants with high pain intensity to learn how to perform the deadlift with the proper technique.
(...) deadlifts have also been shown to increase the strength and endurance of the trunk musculature (3,7) with no difference in activation between sumo and conventional stances (6). However, biomechanical analysis showed that the trunk posture is significantly more upright in the sumo deadlift leading to a decrease in the shear forces (8% reduction compared to conventional stance) placed upon the spine (2,5). Therefore, using the sumo deadlift may be a safer lifting technique in occupations where people are often required to lift bulky or heavy objects from the floor. Consequently, choosing the sumo deadlift as a part of higher-level lower back injury rehabilitation program could be highly beneficial.
The increased forward trunk tilt at LO [LiftOff off the ground] in the current study resulted in a 10–20° decrease in hip angles compared with several other studies (1,5,11). The increased forward trunk tilt at LO may predispose the spine and back musculature to an increased risk of injury (2,3,6). Cholewicki et al. (3) reported that a more upright trunk at LO resulted in less anterior shear force at the lumbar L4/L5 joint. This was especially true in the conventional group, which had significantly greater forward trunk tilt than the sumo group at LO, since there is approximately 10% greater shear force and moment generated at the L4/L5 joint in the conventional deadlift compared with the sumo deadlift (3).(...)
Keeping a weight close to the body during lifting is important in minimizing injury potential, especially to the lower back, because hip and spinal moment arms will decrease. This implies that the low-skilled group may have a higher risk of injury compared with the high-skilled group. Keeping the weight closer to the body also may enhance lifting performance.
The smaller hip moment arms and moments that result by keeping the barbell mass closer to the body also result in smaller L4/L5 joint moments and shear forces (3). This implies that the Special Olympics lifters may increase their risk of injury to the low back by keeping the barbell mass further away from the body. In addition, performance may also be compromised, since increasing hip and L4/L5 moments may also result in less weight being able to be lifted.
Analysis of strength training is complex, since one or more training variables may interact with other training variables. However, the general nature of weight training injuries is quite similar among all those who train with weights, who are more likely to suffer from traumatic and chronic injuries because of various erroneous habits or poor technique (Hooper et al., 2014; Jones et al., 2000; Kerr et al., 2010; Weisenthal et al., 2014; Winwood et al., 2014). For these reason, neuromuscular training should be included in training programs, because it could reduce knee, shoulder, and low back injuries in adolescents and novice athletes in ST (Avery D Faigenbaum et al., 2014; Stevenson, Beattie, Schwartz, & Busconi, 2014)(...)
Our review yielded three clinically relevant findings. First, most studies show variation in the definition of injury, methodologies, and analyses, which can lead to differences in results and conclusions obtained. Second, incidence and prevalence rate depend on definition and type of strength sports. Finally, lower back followed by shoulders and knees are most frequently injuries in ST.
Similarly, the majority of the lower back injuries were associated with the performance of the squat and deadlift. This may be a consequence of the exceedingly large hip extensor torques (13, 23, 24) and compressive/shear lumbar forces (13, 15) reported for these exercises. A relatively greater proportion of injuries were reported to be acute (59.3%) than chronic in nature (40.7%). However, it is acknowledged that some injuries may appear acutely but actually reflect chronic degeneration (25). Unfortunately, the retrospective design and the lack of medical confirmation of each injury did not easily allow for determination of this third type of injury onset. The true rate of acute injuries may therefore actually be somewhat less than that reported
Mason7 and Troup5 expressed their theoretical concerns for possible deleterious effects of the dead lift on the spines of young lifters. Troup suggested a marked shearing stress, at the start of the dead lift, resisted by the pars interarticulanis of successive vertebrae in the region of the vertebral arch between the superior and inferior facets.
The low back region was the dominant injury site; 50% of all injuries occurred in this region. The knee, shoulder, and elbow were other sites of elevated injury occurrences. Musculoskeletal injuries (muscle pulls, tendonitis, cramps, sprains, broken bones, and dislocations) were perceived to account for 90.7% of all injury types.
Resistance exercise protocols that maximize muscle fiber recruitment, time-under-tension, and metabolic stress appear to contribute to intra-muscular anabolic signaling; however, there does not appear to be a minimal threshold or optimal training scheme per se for maximizing muscle hypertrophy
Exercises should be performed at a repetition duration that maintains muscular tension throughout the entire range of motion. Olympic lifting, plyometric and ballistic exercises remove tension from the muscle and apply greater forces through joints and associated tissues causing a greater potential for injury.
OTS appears to be a maladapted response to excessive exercise without adequate rest, resulting in perturbations of multiple body systems (neurologic, endocrinologic, immunologic) coupled with mood changes. Many hypotheses of OTS pathogenesis are reviewed, and a clinical approach to athletes with possible OTS (including history, testing, and prevention) is presented.
OTS remains a clinical diagnosis with arbitrary definitions per the European College of Sports Science’s position statement. History and, in most situations, limited serologies are helpful. However, much remains to be learned given that most past research has been on athletes with overreaching rather than OTS.
The majority of knowledge on markers of overtraining is based on the results of studies that have deliberately induced a state of overreaching in athletes. At present there is insufficient evidence to draw accurate conclusions on the similarities or differences between the two states
A difficulty with recognising and conducting re-search into athletes with OTS is defining the point at which OTS develops. Many studies claim to have induced OTS but it is more likely that they have induced a state of OR in their subjects. Consequently, the majority of studies aimed at identifying markers of ensuing OTS are actually reporting markers of excessive exercise stress resulting in the acute condition of OR and not the chronic condition of OTS. The mechanism of the OTS could be difficult to examine in detail maybe because the stress caused by excessive training load, in combination with other stressors might trigger different ‘defence mechanisms’ such as the immunological, neuroendocrine and other physiological systems that all interact and probably therefore cannot be pinpointed as the ‘sole’ cause of the OTS.
A primary indicator of OR or OTS is a decrease in sport specific performance, and it is very important to emphasise the need to distinguish the OTS from OR and other potential causes of temporary under-performance such as anaemia, acute infection, muscle damage and insufficient carbohydrate intake
the data presented in this meta-analysis indicate considerable immune-suppression and increased stress in athletes who experience the OT syndrome (1,5,6,7,10,12,16,21,22,25,26,27). From this analysis, a negative effect size for the cardiovascular markers of HR and SBP indicates questionable alterations from N to OT in subjects (18,23,24). Increased sympathetic and/or decreased sympathetic influence may be affected in the OT condition. However, low effect size calculations allow for non-determinant conclusions related to cardiovascular indicators of the OT syndrome (3,13,15). Lastly, athletes in the OT state are likely to experience disturbances in sleep, self-perception, and mood factors (11).
Overtraining Syndrome (OS) has been described as chronic fatigue, burnout and staleness, where an imbalance between training/competition, versus recovery occurs. Training alone is seldom the primary cause. In most cases, the total amount of stress on the athlete exceeds their capacity to cope. A triggering stressful event, along with the chronic overtraining, pushes the athlete to start developing symptoms of overtraining syndrome, which is far worse than classic overtraining. Overtraining can be a part of healthy training, if only done for a short period of time. Chronic overtraining is what leads to serious health problems, including adrenal insufficiency.
Severe overtraining over an extended period can result in adrenal depletion [46-48]. An Addison- Type overtraining syndrome, where the adrenal glands are no longer able tomaintain proper hormone levels and athletic performance is severely compromised has been described by researchers [11,13,49-51].
CFS (Chronic Fatigue Syndrome) could be caused by or mistaken for AI (Adrenal Insufficiency). There is commonly a decrease in exercise capacity in CFS, which may be result of AI. Overtraining may contribute to or even cause AI. Cortisol levels are lowered and ACTH is increased during overtraining, while a reduced responsiveness to ACTH, and a reduced responsiveness to CRH are found. If the physical stress of overtraining is not removed, adrenal issues may continue or become more severe. Severely over trained athletes may develop Addison’s Disease
Subjective measures reflected acute and chronic training loads with superior sensitivity and consistency than objective measures. Subjective well-being was typically impaired with an acute increase in training load, and also with chronic training, while an acute decrease in training load improved subjective well-being.
• Sleeping less than 7 hours per night on a regular basis is associated with adverse health outcomes, including weight gain and obesity, diabetes, hypertension, heart disease and stroke, depression, and increased risk of death. Sleeping less than 7 hours per night is also asso- ciated with impaired immune function, increased pain, impaired performance, increased errors, and greater risk of accidents.
• Sleeping more than 9 hours per night on a regular basis may be appropriate for young adults, individu- als recovering from sleep debt, and individuals with illnesses. For others, it is uncertain whether sleeping more than 9 hours per night is associated with health risk.
At present, we know very little about the sleep needs of elite athletes, particularly in terms of the amount required to reach and/or maintain optimal levels of performance. The results of the current study indicate that elite athletes obtain an average of 6 h and 30 min of sleep per night. Given that 6 h of sleep per night in untrained individuals is associated with neurobehavioural deficits in daytime performance, it is reasonable to suggest that this level of sleep loss would also impair sports performance and recovery. One factor that affects the amount of sleep an athlete obtains is the timing of their training. When designing schedules, coaches should be aware of the implications of the timing of training sessions for sleep and fatigue. In particular,schedules that require athletes to train early in the morning reduce sleep duration and increase pre-training fatigue levels.
The main finding of this study was that on average athletes obtained 6.8 h of sleep per night. This amount of sleep was considerably lower than the 8 h of sleep per night necessary to prevent the neurobehavioural deficits associated with sleep loss (Belenky et al.,2003; VanDongen et al.,2003).
While it is recognised that healthy, fit individuals tend to sleep longer and have higher quality of sleep compared to their sedentary counter-parts, there are data indicating that when athletes’ training demands are excessive the amount and quality of sleep may become disrupted (Shapiro,Bortz, Mitchell, Bartel, & Jooste,1981).
Although sleep is generally considered critical for human and athletic performance, there are mixed results regarding objective performance decrements in the current scientific literature. Individual athletes appear to lose sleep just prior to competing or if forced to train at early times; however,evidence for such instances in team sports is lacking.Exercise performance seems to be negatively affected during periods of SD (specifically endurance and repeated exercise bouts), although conflicting results exist for the effect of acute SR, as performance during maximal one-off efforts (in particular for maximal strength) is generally maintained. Possible reasons for these differences could be due to contrasting research designs and statistical power.The effects of sleep loss on physiological responses to exercise could potentially hinder muscular recovery and lead to a reduction in immune defense, although this still remains speculative. The majority of studies focusing on sleep loss and cognitive performance and mood responses have found detriments to most aspects of cognitive func-tion (i.e. RT) and mood stability, results that potentially could hinder the neurocognitive components of many sports. Despite common assumptions around the importance of sleep, the lack of scientific evidence (especially in elite athletes) suggests future research into the examination of sleep and athletic performance is warranted.
Insufficient sleep negatively impacts safety and readiness through reduced cognitive function, more accidents, and increased military friendly-fire incidents. Sufficient sleep is linked to better cognitive performance outcomes, increased vigor, and better physical and athletic performance as well as improved emotional and social functioning. Because Special Operations missions do not always allow for optimal rest or sleep, the impact of reduced rest and sleep on readiness and mission success should be minimized through appropriate preparation and planning. Preparation includes periods of "banking" or extending sleep opportunities before periods of loss, monitoring sleep by using tools like actigraphy to measure sleep and activity, assessing mental effectiveness, exploiting strategic sleep opportunities, and consuming caffeine at recommended doses to reduce fatigue during periods of loss. Together, these efforts may decrease the impact of sleep loss on mission and performance
Sleep is critical to the body’s repair process for an athlete subjected to daily physical stress. Some of the negative effects of sleep deprivation include a decrease in reaction times (Scott, McNaughton, & Polman, 2006), and decreased strength (Riley & Piercy, 1994). During sleep, growth hormone is released and leads to muscle development. The impairments to the immune and endocrine systems (Reilly & Edwards, 2007)that result from sleep deprivation may impair the recovery process and adaptation to training (Halson, 2008).Sleep plays an important role in the repair process following an injury, and lack of sleep impairs injury recovery (Schwarz, Graham, Li, Locke, & Peever, 2013).Sleep deprivation can also cause a higher body mass index, leading to a greater risk of becoming obese (Ferrie, Shipley, Cappuccio, Brunner, Miller, Kumari, & Marmot, 2007). Due to these factors, coaches may be dealing with athletes who are moody, slower, weaker, slower to recover, overweight, and more susceptible to illness and injury.
Sleep plays an important role in the consolidation of memory. This has been most clearly shown in adults for procedural memory (i.e. skills and procedures) and declarative memory (e.g. recall of facts).
Declarative memory is significantly improved by sleep in a sample of normal adolescents
Sleep deprivation was found not to influence performance in a number of studies [6,8e11,13,23], most of which measured short-term performance with a considerable anaerobic component. However, a large number of the studies observed a decrease in performance after sleep deprivation or recovery from sleep deprivation[14e22],many of which measured endurance performance. It is likely that psychological effects (e.g., motivation) contribute to the adverse effect of sleep deprivation upon endurance performance[20]. This proposed mechanism is in line with theoretical notions concerning motivation as a mediator of the effects of sleep deprivation[120].Sleep deprivation seems to influence evening performance to a greater extent than morning performance[7,20,25]. The reduced evening performance is likely a result of lower circadian rhythm amplitude after sleep deprivation[7,121]. Only a minority of the studies on total sleep deprivation measured performance in the evening [7,20], a limitation which may have led to fewer significant results.
Although sleep is recognized as an essential component of recovery from athletic training and anecdotally reported to be the single most efficacious recovery strategy (8), assessment of sleep quality in competitive athletes reveals a substantial prevalence of poor sleep quality (19)The author goes on to make five practical recommendations for athletes trying to optimise sleep. Read the full article for details
These data indicate that athletes may have an increased need for sleep with general recommendations suggesting 7–9 hours to ensure adequate physio-logical and psychological recovery following training, of which 80–90 % should be during the night (3). Further-more, adequate sleep is particularly important for athletes who are injured,traveling, or in heavy periods of training or competition phases (23). Of particular concern when training elite athletes is the identification of signs and symptoms of poor sleep quality,indicative of sleep deprivation, which may result in an inability to appropriately recover from training.
Sleep deprivation may be detrimental to the recovery processes after a match, that is, impaired muscle glycogen repletion, impaired muscle damage repair, altered cognitive function and an increase in mental fatigue. Consequently, prolonged sleep deprivation may act as an additional stress to the stress imposed by exercise itself, similar to that of altitude or heat [132] or training in conditions of reduced carbohydrate availability [133]
Purpose: To determine the presence of a medial collateral ligament tear of the elbow. Test Position: Seated Performing the Test: The affected elbow is placed in 20 degrees of flexion with the humerus in full lateral rotation and a neutral forearm (to decreased influence of PLRI) while palpating the medial joint line. The therapist then applies a valgus force to the elbow. Technique. This test can be performed with the patient supine, sitting, or in the standing position. The therapist places the patients elbow in approximately 20 degrees of flexion while palpating the medial joint line and stabilizing the distal humerus with one hand and applying a valgus stress to the elbow with the other hand. Special test are used in an evaluation as a guide to assist an athletic trainer in the process of identifying the diagnosis. It is important to note that the special test below and the videos provided may be modified to the examiners discretion. 46 Elbow Valgus and Varus Stress Tests Elbow Valgus and Varus Stress Tests Elbow Varus Stress Test. Use: Test for varus lateral collateral ligament (LCL) instability at the elbow Procedure: Elbow flexed, slight supination, support forearm, gapping in/out to assess ligament Findings: Positive finding is pain, decreased mobility, laxity as compared with the unaffected side Positive Finding: The medial elbow/increased valgus movement with a diminished or absent endpoint is indicative of damage to primarily the ulnar collateral ligament. Tinel's Sign Test positioning: The athlete is seated with the elbow in slight flexion, the examiner stands with the distal hand grasping the subjects wrist. In het wetenschappelijk artikel (O'Driscoll, Lawton, & Smith, 2005) komt naar voren dat de Moving valgus stress test kan worden gebruikt om instabiliteit van de elleboog uit te sluiten. Dit artikel is beoordeeld met een 10 op de QUADAS. The therapist then applies a varus force to the elbow. This test is considered positive if the patient experiences pain or excessive laxity is noted and compared to the contralateral side. The test can be repeated in varying degrees of elbow flexion, but generally it is positioned between 5 and 30 degrees. Elbow is held in 20° flexion, one hand supporting the elbow with the humerus somewhat externally rotated; The other on forearm applying valgus stress; A positive test is pain or laxity compared to the unaffected arm Valgus Stress Test. Purpose: To assess the integrity of the MCL. Test Position: Supine. ... While palpating the medial joint line, the examiner should apply a valgus force to the patient's knee. A positive test occurs when pain or excessive gapping occurs (some gapping is normal at 30 degrees). Moving Valgus Stress Test Shoulder abducted to 90, elbow flexed, apply valgus force at elbow and externally rotate humerus moving into flexion and extension Positive test: reproduction of pain
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Enroll in our online course: http://bit.ly/PTMSK DOWNLOAD OUR APP:📱 iPhone/iPad: https://goo.gl/eUuF7w🤖 Android: https://goo.gl/3NKzJX GET OUR ASSESSMENT B... Test for presence of instability of the collateral ligaments of the elbow The test is positive if excessive movement is present. A positive test may indicate... Enroll in our online course: http://bit.ly/PTMSK DOWNLOAD OUR APP:📱 iPhone/iPad: https://goo.gl/eUuF7w🤖 Android: https://goo.gl/3NKzJX GET OUR ASSESSMENT B... It is our mission to challenge sports and orthopedic physical therapists to become clinical experts by providing residency level education.Follow us! EMAIL:... Dan Smith, DO performs the valgus stress test on a patient as part of a full knee examination. Enroll in our online course: http://bit.ly/PTMSK DOWNLOAD OUR APP:📱 iPhone/iPad: https://goo.gl/eUuF7w🤖 Android: https://goo.gl/3NKzJX GET OUR ASSESSMENT B... Enroll in our online course: http://bit.ly/PTMSK DOWNLOAD OUR APP:📱 iPhone/iPad: https://goo.gl/eUuF7w🤖 Android: https://goo.gl/3NKzJX GET OUR ASSESSMENT B... Enroll in our online course: http://bit.ly/PTMSK DOWNLOAD OUR APP:📱 iPhone/iPad: https://goo.gl/eUuF7w🤖 Android: https://goo.gl/3NKzJX GET OUR ASSESSMENT B... Check out my NEW video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NEkJbKxe6EU&t=2sFind out what we can do for you! https://overheadathletics.com/oai-products-and-servi...
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